The problem we are facing in this research is the recognition of the differences between men and women, the role and function of the differences. The goal is to accurately identify the difference between these two sexes in different dimensions, to achieve the necessary background and foundations for a peaceful and cheerful life in the relationship between men and women. The research method of this article is descriptive-analytical based on the study of differences in scientific and religious sources of data. The works and functions are based on religious and psychological research, and the important findings in this research are the understanding of differences in physical, natural, sexual, emotional and intellectual dimensions. This importance helps us to live a healthy, responsible and spiritual life by using love and affection, joy and vitality, balance and fair judgment.
Key word : Woman, man, sexual difference, emotional difference, cognitive difference.
Introduction
One of the factors affecting compatibility and peace in life is paying attention to the difference between men and women in different dimensions. The study of gender and the differences between these two sexes has always been of interest to researchers. 1 Since the time of Plato and perhaps before that (although in an inconsistent and unedited form), there have been discussions about the personality and difference of women from men. Plato considers men and women to be qualitatively similar to each other.
He says: Men and women are similar in terms of talent, and women can take on the same duties and responsibilities that men do, and they can enjoy the same rights as men. Men receive military training, women must also receive military training; Men participate in sports competitions, women should also participate. 2 Of course, he sees women as slightly different in all fields and says: Women are weaker than men in every field.
On the other hand, Aristotle believes that the difference between men and women is not limited to quantitative issues, but they are also qualitatively different. Even in terms of moral virtues, they are different from men in many cases. He believes that some traits can be considered virtues for a man, while they are not considered virtues for a woman. After Aristotle, some scientists preferred Aristotle’s theory over Plato’s theory. 3. Aristotle’s view was of interest among thinkers such as Bacon, Descartes, Locke, Nietzsche, Rousseau, etc. until the 1970s, and from that decade onwards, some people named “social movement” “Women” opposed Aristotle’s thinking in a coherent and planned way and somehow returned to Plato’s point of view. 4
The main research question is: Is there a significant difference between men and women? Sub-questions are also: What are the dimensions of the difference between men and women? What are the differences in the roles of men and women? What is the function of these differences? According to these questions, the importance of the issue becomes clear; Because all members in the family seek to know their role and the expected function of each other. The peace of people is in the shadow of playing roles and achieving functions.
Researches have been conducted on the differences between men and women: Among them, the difference between men and women in diah and retribution, written by Ebrahim Shafi’i Sarvostani, who discussed the jurisprudence of diat, retribution, and criminal law. A research titled “Man and Woman in Islam” written by Mohammad Wasfi deals with the individual differences between men and women. The book examining the jurisprudential differences between men and women, written by Mohsen Jahangiri, deals with jurisprudential and legal differences.
The book “Sexual differences between men and women” by Jane Ridley, translated by Behzad Rahmati, deals with the sexual and individual differences between men and women. An article titled “Difference between men and women from the point of view of psychology and religious texts”5 has been written, which has highlighted the special differences of each of religion and science. What distinguishes this research is the investigation of the functions of awareness of the differences between men and women, which was not found in this research.
Differences between men and women from the point of view of religion
In the Islamic religion, there are differences between men and women in terms of virtues. For example, some traits are the worst among men and the best among women. Commander of the Faithful, Ali, peace be upon him, says: “The best qualities of women, which are the worst qualities of men, are: Arrogance, fear and avarice.” 6 Men and women have a common identity in their essence and human essence, but they have many differences from each other in terms of mental, physical and sexual aspects. When dealing with a woman, a man should consider the respect appropriate to her spirit and fulfill it.
Imam Baqir (peace be upon him) says in this context: “Whoever chooses a wife should honor her. Indeed, your women are sarcastic and charming. Whoever marries them should not waste them.”7 This narration talks about the characteristics that are reserved for women. Sarcasm and charm are characteristics of women. Men’s awareness of this characteristic helps them to better understand the difference between men and women and to better analyze women’s behavior. 8
The issue of the difference between the two sexes is of interest not only among religious scholars, but also among other thinkers. Alexis Karl says: The difference between men and women is not only in their appearance, but the difference is deeper than that. This difference is caused by the effect of the substances secreted from the genital glands in the blood, in such a way that each and every cell of the body, especially the cells of the nervous system of men and women, have a sexual sign on them. 9 Therefore, basically, the difference between Men and women, there is no room for doubt. By accepting the difference between men and women, it becomes necessary to talk about its dimensions and we must address the dimensions of the difference between them. Below are the types of these differences:
۱٫ Physical differences
Men are stronger than women. Researchers say: the special male sex hormone (testosterone) has a great effect on the production of protein in the body and stimulates the growth of muscle tissues. Therefore, men have more ability to do heavy work, but even though they have more physical ability, their mental vulnerability is also more. : “God has given a woman the patience of ten men.” 11
Also, men have thick and thick vocal cords and have a harsh voice. In other words, men have three pitch levels, while women have four pitch levels. 12 For this reason, women speak more thinly and delicately than men and have a special tension. Adam, peace be upon him, after seeing Eve and hearing her thin and delicate voice, said: “What a beautiful creation you have!”13
Therefore, expecting heavy work from men, and gentleness and humor from women is suitable for their nature, and providing the needs of life in accordance with each gender provides a basis for compatibility between them, just like expecting women to do heavy work and violence and rudeness in Their voice provides the ground for incompatibility between spouses.
۲٫ Gender difference
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes on which there are small particles called “genes”. Genes carry traits from parents to the fetus. Among these chromosomes, there is a pair of sex chromosomes which is XX in women and XY in men. If there is an X chromosome from the female side and a Y chromosome from the male side, the child born will be a boy, and if both chromosomes are X, the child will be a girl.
Therefore, the gender of the child is determined by the type of male chromosome composition. We mentioned this in the context of the compatibility of spouses, so that you know that although men are now less likely to be incompatible with women due to the birth of a daughter, in the past, mothers were not treated because they gave birth to a daughter. Men’s dowries were placed. The awareness of the mother’s innocence in determining the child’s gender and the non-optionality of the combination of chromosomes from the father’s side closes the way for incompatibility between spouses from this point of view.
On the other hand, the sexual needs of women and men are different. Although men and women need security and assurance in their sexual relations, the way of satisfying it is different in men and women. By having sexual intercourse, men make sure that they have the necessary competence and have been able to establish a marital relationship in an effective way, but women need affection and attention from their wives.
Men should fulfill this need by expressing affection and love and using emotional sentences and know that it is not enough to just love, but they have to express it. This is the psychological need of the wife. In this context, the Holy Prophet, may God bless him and grant him peace, says: “A man who says to his wife: I love you, know that this word will never leave his wife’s heart.” 14
John Gray says: Most men are reluctant to say “I love you” to their wives; They think that repeating this sentence will tire their wife, but saying this sentence never has a bad effect. When a man utters this sentence, it is as if he allows his wife to feel the process of loving. 15 Paying attention to the differences between men and women and their sexual needs has an effective role in their satisfaction in married life. Men have the right grounds for early gratification, while women need the basics that men must provide. For this reason, in our hadiths, sexual contact between a man and a woman before flirting with her is considered punishment. 16
Some men stop caressing a woman in order to achieve their own satisfaction while having sexual intercourse, while the woman is interested in continuing caressing. In terms of time, men need two or three minutes to be at the final limit of sexual intercourse, while statistics show that the average preparation time for women is 18 minutes; That is, women need six times as much time as men. 17
Considering the difference between men and women in the sexual dimension, on the one hand, Islam has ordered men to provide the facilities so that the woman’s desire is met, and on the other hand, it is one of the women’s duties to meet the man’s sexual needs whenever he wants. And he said: “One of the duties of a woman is to respond positively to a man’s request, even if he is riding on the back of a camel.”18
This is the immediate need of a man, which may one day be reversed and become the immediate need of a woman. As some have said: In the first years of life, men show more desire for intercourse, and in later years, women may have more desire for intercourse. Anyway, in all stages, the sexual need should be answered quickly and this is a good ground for compatibility.
۳٫ Emotional difference
Both men and women have feelings towards others. They both want to love others and they want others to love them, but the expression and appearance of affection is different in men and women. Even if women love someone a little, they show that they love him a lot. While men show the person they love a lot in such a way that they love him a little. Showing their love is different.
Gina Lembroso says: Women are altruistic and when they imagine that the trouble they are going through will bring comfort to others and make them happy, they will submit to any suffering. 19
Hazrat Ali, peace be upon him, says about the difference between men and women: “The work you entrust to a woman should not be out of her scope; Because he is a sweet-smelling flower, and as a manager of income and expenditure, he should not do harsh things.”20
Since women are very interested in expressing their emotional state, they need to talk; Because language is one of the most important tools for transferring emotions. This issue is so important that some have said: a woman only needs a conversation and does not think about the outcome, while a man expects a conversation to solve a problem. 21
The origin of a woman’s behavior is emotion and bearing heavy and exhausting responsibilities has adverse psychological effects on her. Women focus on several things at the same time. For this reason, they quickly lose their ability to prioritize things; Because they don’t concentrate and get confused sooner. Women get depressed and cry quickly, but men rarely show their depression. For this reason, the qualitative level of depression by women is not very deep. Although men get depressed later, if they get depressed, they go to the border of suicide. 22
Showing affection is stronger in women. On the other hand, concentration is stronger in men. Understanding and accepting these differences prevents possible discomfort in the family. Women should know that a man’s concentration is never a measure of his love for his wife. It is natural that when a man faces a problem in life, he becomes focused, as if there is no other problem in life and he He has no responsibility towards others. A woman should not interpret this situation as inattention and think that she is intentionally making her husband uncomfortable. If he thinks correctly, he will not feel resentment, but he will try to help his wife in solving the problem.
Men should also know that women need to express their feelings when faced with problems. If they do not express their feelings, they become depressed. They feel dependent on attention and respect from their spouses. Their need in such situations is not preaching or commanding or forbidding, but they are thirsty for affection and love. Moving towards acceptance of differences leads men and women to perfection.
Suzan Quillian says about the difference between men and women: When spouses are aware of each other’s differences, instead of hating them, they appreciate them. These are the differences that make you compatible. If both men and women were absolutely similar, their vulnerability would also be extremely similar to each other. Therefore, when they were faced with problems, they tried to use one method to deal with it and were prevented from finding a solution to the problem. 23
Being aware of the differences and paying attention to it makes men and women not only more successful in fulfilling each other’s desires, but also makes them achieve more and better success in fulfilling their own desires. When a woman knows that a man’s excitability to visual stimuli is much higher than other stimuli and a man knows that a woman is more sensitive to tactile movements, she can better satisfy her and her husband’s needs. A man’s trait is eye-catching and a woman’s trait is self-decoration. Tabraj is one of the emotional characteristics of women, and it is less common for men to appear in revealing clothes. 24
The innateness of each of these traits for men and women makes it clear what kind of feedback can satisfy each man and woman. Famous psychologist Lembroso says: When a woman sees a man interested in her, her main goal is no longer flirting and showing off in front of others. As it can be seen, women who are interested in their husbands and children are completely removed from the world of extreme and reprehensible flirting and flirting. If a woman makes showing off in front of others her profession, it is because she has not found the answer to her inner emotions with her husband. 25 It is possible to adjust the character of showing off in a woman with the provision made by a man. Balanced self-care is necessary for a happy, respectable and planning life.
۴٫ Differences in natural needs
Women’s nature requires care, understanding and respect, and men’s nature requires trust, acceptance and appreciation. The more men pay attention and care to women, the more trust they gain from them. In fact, satisfying a woman’s natural need (care) causes a man’s natural need (trust) to be satisfied. On the other hand, if the woman trusts the man and sees him as the manager and responsible of the shared life, the man will gain energy and take care of his wife more than before. So the relationship between meeting these needs is two-way.
If men have more understanding of women’s needs and women feel that they are better understood, they are equally more receptive to men. Undoubtedly, the help of each of the spouses to the other is actually considered to be help to themselves and its positive effects will indirectly return to themselves. Also, when women strengthen the acceptance of men, men try to understand them more. The reflection of such behavior is their psychological development. When a man respects the choice of his wife, he is met with her gratitude. Women appreciate the respect they see from their husbands, which is one of the natural needs of men. Because women also need respect, when they appreciate their husbands, in fact, they satisfy their need for respect.
John Gray says: If a woman is not respected, sexual relations will be disturbed; The woman starts to annoy her husband, takes on a domineering and demanding behavior and feels insecure and unworthy. Even if a woman is respected at her workplace, but her husband does not respect her feelings, she still does not feel worthy. The feeling of being respected and loved is in women’s nature, and Islam pays attention to love towards women in order to fulfill a strong need. A woman is loving. Hazrat Ali, peace be upon him, says: “Love towards women is one of the morals of the prophets.” 26
Understanding of women’s need for sympathy can be seen in the practical life of Hazrat Ali (peace be upon him). Expressing his sadness at the hardships his wife endures in life, Hazrat suggests her to talk to her noble father, the Holy Prophet, peace and blessings of God be upon him, and ask for a servant. Hazrat Zahra (peace be upon him) also does this, and the Prophet, peace and blessings of God be upon him, teaches his beloved daughter Tasbihat, which is called “Tasbihat of Hazrat Zahra (peace be upon him).” ” it is famous. The sympathy of Hazrat Ali (peace be upon him) made it easy for Fatimah (peace be upon him) to endure many hardships.
Poris Anko says: A woman should let her husband know her needs and feelings; Because a man is not able to read a woman. By expressing feelings, spouses gain confidence and put aside the fear of rejection27, therefore, paying attention to the difference that women have in terms of need compared to men and trying to provide it, can be considered an important factor for compatibility.
It is a partial view of the characteristics of women and a general view of the characteristics of men. John Gray says: Women have open vision and senses, and men have focused vision and senses. 28 A man who pays attention to his wife will naturally take steps in an open and extensive search, the woman’s many questions will not bother him, and the woman will not bother him. Knowing that a man focuses on generalities, he does not see not explaining many cases in different aspects of life as far from the expectation, and more compatibility grounds are provided.
۵٫ Difference in thinking
Thinking has different types, including elementary thinking, abstract thinking, problem solving thinking, etc. Normally, primitive thinking is more common among women than men. In many cases, women have long dreams, which is a sign of primitive thinking.29 Abstract thinking that requires inference and obtaining concepts from examples, although it is seen among men and women, but among women. The components of this thinking are very small and detailed, and men are holistic in abstract thinking. For this reason, women need more precision to think and make decisions, while men respond faster and have a faster decision-making speed due to their overview.
In problem solving thinking, which is a kind of abstract thinking, a person goes to solve some unknowns with a bunch of information. Men need less time to solve a problem; Because they are focused. As a result, the percentage of mistakes and deviations from the standard is higher in women than in men, and women’s problem-solving thinking progresses slowly. Because their opinion in complexities does not have a guarantee of high accuracy. Hazrat Ali, peace be upon him, says in the context of this difference: “Avoid consulting with women; Because their opinion becomes weak and their decision is unstable.”31 The factor of instability in women’s decision-making, in addition to the predominance of feelings and emotions, is their broad, open and superficial vision.
For this reason, the Holy Qur’an has advised men to do the work with the advice of women in matters that are not particularly complicated and women have a share in commenting: “When the parents want to wean the child, if it is with consent and consultation, there is no problem.” (Baqarah: 233) Also, in special cases where women have good maturity and experience, it is possible to consult with women; Because it is a general and prevailing prohibition of consultation, and one can find exceptional cases for it. Therefore, in cases where we decide on important matters, we should not expect stable decisions and strong votes from women.
The function of accepting differences and its role in common life
Functions are works and results that appear after a behavior or state and are expected by the society, and since the society is like an acting and theater stage, the role is the same social role that the individual displays in this stage. 32 Paying attention to differences and accepting them has a great effect on the peace of common life. Below, we mention some of these differences:
۱٫ Love and affection
Differences play a very effective role in creating a loving and romantic relationship between spouses. John Gray says: Accepting the basic fact that men and women are different from each other is necessary to create positive and romantic relationships between spouses. Men and women should learn to respect each other’s differences in order to feel more close and intimate towards each other. 33
The Holy Quran says: “One of the signs of God is that God created wives from yourselves so that you can rest beside them and He placed grace and mercy between you.” (Rome: 21) Complementary differences cause a special tension between spouses, and this tension creates a mysterious feeling called “love” that turns the family into the most beautiful manifestation of existence.
Victor Hugo says: Happy is the person whom God has given a heart that is worthy of love, burning and melting. 34 True love is possible in the shadow of acceptance of differences. A person who is more aggressive than usual is naturally attracted to someone who is calm and gentle, and as a result of this association, the aggressive person becomes a little more calm and gentle.
۲٫ Fair judgment
One of the important factors in the emergence and stability of proper relationships between spouses is fair judgment. In order for men and women to reach the higher stages of perfection and development, they must have a fair judgment about each other without any narrow-mindedness and self-view and regardless of any kind of bias, and this result is possible in the shadow of acceptance of differences. The main reason for negative judgments is not accepting And not understanding the differences. Recognizing the differences between spouses makes it possible for them to freely judge each other. 35
Some people are rational, some are emotional and some are pragmatic. For social interaction with other groups, each group must accept them and respect them according to their different tendencies and feel the necessity of their existence. Otherwise, an analytical person will never be able to have a friendly and close relationship with a sensual person; Because he has a negative judgment towards such a person and cannot accept him. Therefore, accepting differences prevents the occurrence of unfair judgments.
Sometimes the cause of disruption in relationships and the emergence of unfair judgments by women towards men is caused by the imposition of feminist opinion. The slogan of “equality between men and women” and not accepting differences leads to negative judgment. Expectations arising from the lack of difference between men and women cause men to be referred to with terms such as “enemy” and “aggressor”, not knowing that with this image, women are sometimes also referred to with terms such as “backward” and “unsupplied”. It is possible that both approaches are the result of not paying attention to differences. Husband and wife should burn the grounds of negative judgment in their joint life.
Even where they defend values, they should not provide grounds for negative judgment. For example, among men, jealousy is a desirable thing that can bring security to life. The same thing, if it does not appear in its place, will cause negative judgment of the wife. Hazrat Ali (peace be upon him) said in a letter to his son Imam Mujtaba (peace be upon him): “Avoid showing undue zeal; Because it makes the healthy sick and the pure suspicious. This makes a worthy woman far from worthy.” 36
۳٫ Joy and vitality
One of the effects of accepting differences is the respect of spouses for each other and the creation of passion and excitement in their joint lives. When men and women become too similar to each other, they lose the mysterious attraction between them, to the extent that it is said: living with someone who is like us is boring. 37
Hazrat Ali (peace be upon him) vitality and happiness in his life with Hazrat Fatima (peace be upon him). in the shadow of acceptance of differences, he expresses as follows: “We were like two pigeons in the same nest, enjoying vitality, health and youth.” 38
Men become more lovable to women by accepting and respecting feminine attitudes, and the woman feels that her husband loves her for herself. Her husband has accepted her and her assets are desirable for him and he does not want her to take care of household affairs or take care of children and the like. This feeling makes a woman cheerful and happy.
Also, when women accept their husbands as those who are focused on planning and managing their common life and have removed the cause of many failures, men feel happy from this acceptance. In this context, John Gray says: If we only knew the differences and respected them, many of our issues and problems would be solved.39
If the woman accepts, taking into account the differences between herself and her husband, she should ask him for her wish without offending the man, and if the man accepts, the woman will give the best of herself, and only by taking into account the difference in her abilities and characteristics, she can If he has expectations, many disputes will be resolved. In order to solve problems, we must first change ourselves; It means that our perspective should change. In this case, we will see the difference between ourselves and our spouse positively. Many family conflicts are caused by unreasonable expectations and not considering differences.
For example, when a man does not pay attention to the differences between himself and his wife, in various situations he expects behavior such as silence, introspection and interest from his wife, while this type of behavior is a characteristic of men, and what about women? Whether in a happy or sad situation, they never want to be silent. Accepting the differences between men and women prevents spouses from being in such chaotic situations.
۴٫ Balance
The principle of balance is one of the factors influencing the regulation of common life towards growth and exaltation. Getting out of balance, that is, exaggeration, is both deviation and departure from the correct path. Many mental disorders in human society are related to not observing balance in life. For balance, men should stand next to women and balance themselves.
Also, women also need men to create balance in their existence. The combination of feminine and masculine forces creates perfection. A man in a masculine state can appear proud, self-centered and selfish and does not pay attention to the needs of others, but a woman in a feminine state seems to think too much of others and forgets herself and thinks of others.
The only way to avoid the deviation of extremes is to reach a balance. Attracting male mental qualities to female qualities is a platform for creating balance. Men, with their masculine characteristics, are the grounds for completing the undeveloped part of women, and women, with their feminine characteristics, complete the undeveloped part of men. A man’s coldness is balanced with a woman’s warmth, aggressiveness with harmony, decisiveness with criticism, and strength with her love. For example, men are introverted and tend to be more silent.
The presence of a woman in the common life, who has a broad vision and tends to speak, brings the man out of the state of silence and gives balance to his silence. Also, women who are superficial due to their broad vision and cannot focus, are moderated in superficiality by the presence of a man in their common life, who sees focused. Hazrat Ali, peace be upon him, considers the lack of balance as a sign of ignorance, and while warning the Shiites against excesses, he says: “Lateri al-Jahli Ela Mufarta O Mufarta”; Therefore, in order to avoid corruption and ignorance and to move towards compatibility, we must think carefully about the differences between men and women and accept it.
conclusion
There are differences between men and women, the recognition of which affects the role and function of each. Sometimes a feature may be positive for one and negative for another. The different dimensions of these differences can be studied in the context of physical, emotional, sexual, natural and intellectual issues and the differences can be identified.
Familiarity with differences has functions for compatibility, vitality, health and peace in human life. These functions can be found in the love and affection of family members towards each other, the intimate atmosphere governing married life, fair judgment of people towards themselves and others, balance in behavior, happiness and vitality. The result of this familiarity is mutual understanding between family members, appropriate and realistic expectations, benefiting from lawful freedom and the evolutionary movement of the family towards a high destination that can be reached by all family members.
PS:
۱- Shokuh Navanejad, marriage counseling and family therapy, p. 14.
۲- Plato, Republic, translated by Fouad Rouhani, p. 138.
۳- Morteza Motahari, Women’s Rights System in Islam, p. 170.
۴- Shkoh Nawabi Nejad, ibid., p. 16; Mohammadreza Zibayi Nejad and…, an introduction to the female personality system in Islam, p. 29.
۵- Mohammadreza Ahmadi, “Difference between men and women from the perspective of psychology and religious texts”, Marafet, Vol. 97, November 2004.
۶- Nahj al-Balagha, translated by Mohammad Dashti, Hikmat 234.
۷- Mohammad Baqer Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 100, p. 224.
۸- Joseph Perez, Counseling, translated by Ebrahim Sanayi, p. 94.
۹- Alexis Karl, Man is an unknown being, translated by Parviz Debiri, p. 100.
۱۰- Mohammad Majd, Psychology of men and women, p. 45.
۱۱- Mohammad bin Yaqub Kilini, Al-Kafi, vol. 5, p. 335.
۱۲- Ali Akbar Shaari Nejad, Psychology of adult development in life span, p. 25.
۱۳- Mohammad Baqer Majlisi, ibid., vol. 15, p. 33.
۱۴- Mohammad bin Yaqub Kilini, Al-Kafi, vol. 5, p. 569.
۱۵- John Gray, Woman, Man, Communication, translated by Mehdi Karacha Daghi, p. 190.
۱۶- Mohammad Bin Hasan Harr Aamily, Wasal al-Shia, vol. 20, p. 119.
۱۷- Anko Jon Boris, Manifestations of a woman’s life, translated by Manijeh Behzad, p. 160.
۱۸- Mohammad bin Hasan Harr Aamili, ibid., vol. 20, p. 158.
۱۹- Gina Lambrouz, Psychology of a Woman, translated by Peri Hossam Shahrais, p. 85.
۲۰- Nahj al-Balagha, Letter 31.
۲۱- John Gray, ibid., p. 24.
۲۲- Mohammad Majd, ibid., p. 118.
۲۳- Suzan Kobiliam, in the shelter of each other, translated by Fereshte Salehi, p. 201.
۲۴- Siddmjatbi Hashemi Rakavandi, Psychology of a woman, p. 222.
۲۵- Gina Lambruso, The Soul of a Woman, translated by Pari Hossam Shahrais, vol. 1, p. 48.
۲۶- Muhammad bin Hasan Harr Aamily, ibid., vol. 14, p. 9.
۲۷- Jon Puris Anko, Manifestations of a woman’s life, translated by Manijeh Behzad, p. 171.
۲۸- John Gray, ibid., p. 49.
۲۹- Mohammad Majd, ibid., p. 78.
۳۰- The same.
۳۱- Nahj al-Balagha, letter 31.
۳۲- Abbas Arianpour, field of psychology, p. 25.
۳۳- John Gray, ibid., pp. 12 and 54.
۳۴- Sidihihi Barqai, abstract of ideas, vol. 1, p. 250.
۳۵- John Gray, ibid., p. 14.
۳۶- Nahj al-Balagha, letter 31.
۳۷- John Gray, ibid., p. 84.
۳۸- Mohammad Baqer Majlisi, ibid., vol. 43, p. 117.
۳۹- John Gray, ibid., p. 44.
۴۰- Nahj al-Balagha, Hikmat 70.
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