How is Islamic sectarianism done?

The transformation of thoughts and beliefs is necessary for the human thinking power, and where there is no certain axis, this transformation may continue indefinitely, so that with the birth of every human being, we have to wait for the emergence of a new belief. But the emergence of different religions and schools of thought have made human thoughts circulate around specific axes and have prevented excessive dispersion. Meanwhile, the emergence of Islam as the final religion created a turning point in the history of human thought; Because the promising message of Khatami was that the caravan of wisdom and human thought has grown so much that it can reach its destination within the framework of this complete religion and without the need for the emergence of a new religion. Perhaps, if this religion was on its original path, it could lead mankind to happiness with the least religious differences. However, not many decades have passed since the emergence of the religion of Islam, when, like other religions, intra-religious differences began in it, and over time, these differences accelerated under the influence of various intellectual, political, climatic, cultural, economic, and other factors. A way that only after the passage of three centuries, at the beginning of the fourth century, every outside observer and researcher was perplexed and confused to find the truth and truth among all the professions, religions and practices attributed to Islam. Therefore, the need to compile a science in which the opinions and opinions of different groups attributed to Islam are expressed was felt more than before, so that the researcher and critic can learn about the opinions of different sects by studying that science and then with three He should put the scale of the book, tradition, and intellect in the bush and recognize the head from the bottom.

Although the seeds of this science were sown in the third century, its growth began in the fourth century. But its development was so unbalanced and without relying on reasonable foundations that after a few centuries it stagnated and finally turned into a pseudo-dead state. 1

In this article, in addition to providing a general overview of the science of Islamic sectology, which is a part of the science of nations and peoples, [2] the causes of stagnation and providing solutions to eliminate those defects and solutions for creating a desirable science of sectology have been discussed .

Definition of Islamic sectarian science

There is no specific definition of Islamic sectarianism in the common books of Nahl and Nahal; But according to the books written in this science and also according to its name, it can be defined as follows: “Islamic sectarianism is a science that is responsible for expressing theological beliefs specific to the sects that originated from Islam .”

This science only seeks to express the opinions and beliefs of sects and not to criticize and reject them. This principle has been observed in some of the primary sources of this science; But in many other books, the authors have tried to prove their opinion and reject the opinions of the opposing sects, and in some of these books, like the chapter, they have gone so far in this field that they can actually be distinguished from the books related to He removed this knowledge and counted it among the books of theology. From here, this point becomes clear that the word “expression” in the above definition, in fact, has removed the science of speech from the scope of this science; Because the speakers, unlike the writers of this science, are trying to prove their opinion and reject the opinions of others. In this science, only cases of differences in the theological beliefs of the sects are discussed, and political, jurisprudential, historical, hadith and religious differences have no place in it .

This science only deals with the groups that were created in the Islamic context, which include three categories :

۱٫  Groups that have accepted the three theological principles of monotheism, prophethood and resurrection, and in other words, groups that can be considered Muslims according to Islamic principles .

۲٫ The groups that have violated these principles or some of them and according to Islamic principles and principles and also the opinion of most Muslims have left the Muslim domain, but they themselves consider themselves Muslims, like the different groups of grains that entered despite the violation. Referring to divinity and prophecy or even the resurrection, they refer to the verses of the Qur’an.

۳٫ Groups that have not accepted these principles or some of them, and do not consider themselves Muslims, such as some of the Baha’i groups, who consider their religion to be an abrogation of Islam, but in any case, in the context of Islam and influenced by beliefs. Islamic people put forward their opinions.

The benefits of Islamic sectarian science

The most important benefit of this science, which actually makes the work of Islamic theologians easier, is the knowledge of the theological beliefs of different Islamic groups, in the light of which one can understand the degree of mutual influence of different groups through criticism and analysis. Also, with the gathering of the beliefs of all Islamic groups in one science, it is possible to measure them all with the original Islamic foundations, i.e. the book, the Sunnah, and reason, and it is a step towards knowing the correct Islamic beliefs or even the Najih sect (of course, if you believe in the existence of only one Let us be a savior sect).

Another benefit of this science, which can help us in the science of hadith, is a detailed knowledge of the nature of different sects such as Qadiriyyah, Jabriyyah, Al-Mutazilah, Mashhabah, Mu’tazila, Ghalat, Khawarij, Haruriyyah, Zaidiyyah, and also their different beliefs such as Jabr, delegation, affordability, reincarnation, resolution. The names of these groups and their beliefs are used in Shia and Sunni hadiths, and with the help of this knowledge, we can find a more accurate understanding of such narrations .

Also, this science can help historians and analysts of Islamic history in another way, because when examining the currents of Islamic history, we come across the names of some sects or their leaders, knowing them and their beliefs can help in better understanding of this Such flows are useful.

A religious scholar can also benefit from this knowledge in another way, in such a way that by correctly knowing the opinions of different groups, he can judge in a more accurate way about the people belonging to those groups that are found in the series of Ahadith records. slow. Through this benefit, the jurist can also take advantage of it when he is careful in the series of documents of jurisprudential traditions according to his basis .

The position of Islamic sectarian science

In some of the writings, it has been mentioned about the close relationship between the science of nations and theology in general with the science of theology, which requires the connection between the science of Islamic sectarianism and the science of theology. The author considered this relationship as the relationship between the history of a science and the soul of that science, and gave an example of the relationship between the history of philosophy and the science of philosophy, and then explained his point of view as follows :

Theological science discusses the doctrinal issues related to the origin and resurrection and pays attention to the proof of one opinion and refutations of opposing opinions, but the science of nations and Nahal raises theological issues from the point of view of different groups, without making a judgment in rejecting or rejecting them. have proof of them. 3]

In examining this point of view, it is necessary to mention one point: We assume that this science is the history of the science of speech, but this does not mean that this science is organic in relation to speech, because organic sciences are sciences that have been incorporated only for the purpose of being used in another science, such as the science of principles of jurisprudence which Its rules and issues are used in jurisprudence. Although these kinds of sciences are lower than the target reasoning sciences in terms of rank, they should be learned before those sciences from the point of view of education and training. However, sciences such as the history of a science or its philosophy, although they are somewhat similar to organic sciences in terms of monitoring issues and stating the history and issues of that science or obtaining general rules from its issues, they are different from them in two other ways. .

۱٫  In the definition of these sciences, the destination science is obtained by being a science; For example, they say that the history of the science of philosophy is “explaining the history of philosophical opinions raised in the science of philosophy”, or the definition of the philosophy of history is “deducing general rules from the science of history”. But in none of the definitions of the science of principles of jurisprudence, the science of jurisprudence is not included in the definition .

۲٫  These kinds of sciences are late in terms of learning the general problems of the destination sciences, and therefore they are called “second-rate knowledge” .

From here, this point is obtained that the science of Islamic sectarianism cannot be considered as a type of organic science, nor as a type of secondary knowledge; Because it has not been used in another science like Kalam, nor has Kalam been taken in the definition of that science. Although the study of this science can provide a history of the theological beliefs of Muslims throughout the history of Islam, but as said, this is only one of the various benefits of this science. Therefore, we can consider Islamic sectarian science as an independent science, and neither organic nor secondary knowledge .

Definition of terms

Here, we define some of the key terms of this science and in the end, we explain the hadith of separation, which is widely used in this science .

۱٫  Nations: This word is the plural of nation and it is used fifteen times in the Holy Quran. Paying attention to the use of this word, we find that its correct meaning, which is the comprehensive measure of all cases, is Tariqat and Sunnah, as it is also stated in some books of Arabic vocabulary [5], because in the Qur’an we come across cases that this The word is also used about the way of non-religious people, as it is said in the words of Hazrat Yusuf (pbuh): “I left the nation of the unbelieving people of God.” (Surah Yusuf, verse 12 ).

It is clear from this that the use of the nation in sects is also permissible in terms of vocabulary and Quran. Also, in a hadith of the Holy Prophet (PBUH), the word nation is used for intra-religious groups: “They [Bani Israel] divided over seventy-two nations, and the nation divided over seventy-three nations; The children of Israel were divided into seventy-two nations, and my nation will be divided into seventy-three nations.” [6]]

This word is used as a synonym of religion in the term science of nations and palm trees, and from the examples given, it is clear that it means heavenly religions such as Christianity, Judaism, and Magianism [7] .

۲٫  Nihal: This word is the plural of Nihalah, which is used in the Qur’an to mean giving and giving.[12 ]

In the term of this science, this word is equivalent to the words Ara and Ahva and is used in contrast to the word religion.[14] Perhaps the reason for this is that in the opinion of the owners of this knowledge, the owners of these schools are not correct in the facts they claim .

۳٫  Cult: This word is taken from the word “farq” which means separation and it is said to a group that has separated itself from the general public.[15] In the term of the Qur’an, it refers to a population whose number is more than a tribe: “Falula Nafer Man, all sects of them are of the faith-minded sect” (Surat al-Tawbah, verse 122 ).

In the dictionary and also in the Qur’an, the concept of “group” is not included in the use of this word .

In the term of nations and nations, a sect is a group with special theological beliefs. It seems that this special meaning of “sect” is taken from the famous hadith “separation” in which the Holy Prophet (PBUH) informs about the division of his nation into seventy-three sects.[16] From here it is clear that this word has two differences with its lexical status in the term science of nations and Nahal: The first is that this word literally means a group, regardless of its beliefs, but in the term of nations and trees, the term of believing in certain theological beliefs is added to it. Second, sect in the word means a minority as opposed to a majority, but this word has been used in Mullah and Nahl even for the majority group, which is called “Jamaat” .

Here, we can criticize the Lord of the Nations and Nahl about this word, and that is that it is not a problem to forge a term for the word cult, regardless of the word, Quran and narrations, and apply it to a group with specific theological beliefs. cut But if you mean the word “sect” that is used in the hadiths of the Prophet, you should refer to the dictionary and the Qur’an as well as other traditions, and in these sources, religious beliefs are not included in the meaning of sect. Therefore, the sect includes any political, jurisprudential, and religious classifications, and it does not make sense to assign it to theological classifications. In the following hadith of separation, it will be clear that the use of the word sect in the language of the Lord of the Nations and Nahal refers to the hadith of separation .

Another point that is necessary about this word is that, as it is obtained from the Quranic, literal and hadith term of division, a sect is said to be a group that has a relatively large population; Therefore, it is not correct to apply it to groups with the number of fingers or less.

From this point of view, we come to another problem regarding the nations and Nahl writers who have tried with specific goals to make the sects attributed to Shia appear numerous and to groups with a very small population that appeared at a certain point in time and soon became extinct. and have given the name of the sect, and it is interesting that they have listed them in the number of seventy-three sects. Even in some cases, they have forged groups called Shia that did not exist externally [17].]

۴٫ Problem: The problem in this science consists of the main axes of theology around which the differences of Islamic groups arise. In order to regulate the topics of the science of nations and plants, Shahristan has arranged its various issues under four rules, which are: a) issues of eternal attributes, inherent attributes, verb attributes, what is obligatory, permissible, or impossible for God Under the first rule, the title of which is Attributes and Monotheism; b) Matters of justice and fate, predestination and gain, the will of good and evil, possible and known under the second rule with the title of justice and justice in it; c) Matters of faith, repentance, promise, acceptance, takfir and error under the third rule under the title of promise and promise and names and rules; d) Issues of goodness and badness, goodness and righteousness, kindness, infallibility in prophethood, the conditions of Imamate under the fourth rule with the title of hearing and intellect, mission and Imamate.[18]]

۵٫  Article: In the term of this science, an essay is a special theological opinion that each group expresses under the main theological issues and creates the point of difference between the groups. This word has such a role in this science that some bibliographers have referred to this science as the science of “Essays of Difference”.[21] Al-Maqalaat al-Farq, written by Saad bin Abdullah Ash’ari (301 AH); And the articles of the Muslims in the dispute of Muslims, written by Abul Hasan Ash’ari (324 AH ).

۶٫  Hadith of division: The hadith of division is the title of a narration in which the Holy Prophet (PBUH) predicted that his Ummah would be divided into seventy-three sects. This hadith, which was narrated in the Sunni and Shia narrative communities, has been cited by many nations and writers. What is important here is to mention its methods and documents, to examine its content and the history of documents related to it in the books of Nations and Nahl .

۱-۶ . Hadith documents of division

This narration in Sunni narrative communities, like the traditions of Ibn Majah (276-218 AH),[28 ]

Considering the many ways of hadith, we accept it and discuss more about its content .

۲-۶ . The content of hadith division

When discussing the content of the hadith, it is necessary to talk about its two parts, the front and the bottom. In the beginning, there is talk about the division of the Prophet’s Ummah into seventy-two or seventy-three sects;[29] The following hadith is trying to determine the Najiya sect. We are quoting the first hadith from the oldest source, i.e. Ibn Majah’s Sunan :

…  Qal (pbuh): “The Jews divided into seventy-one sects, one in Paradise and seventy in Hell, and the Christians divided into seventy-two sects, seventy-one in Hell, one in Paradise, and the one who gave the soul of Muhammad to divide the nation into seventy-three sects, one in Paradise and seventy-two in Hell .

In all sources, the beginning of the hadith has been narrated in the same way with slight differences in wording and content. But since the bottom of the hadith is decisive and proves the validity of one group and the invalidity of other groups, it has undergone many differences, because different sects have tried to match it with their creed .

The Shiites have narrated the following hadith in the following terms: “Ho we are not against you today, I and the people of my house;[31] The sect of Najiyyah is the one that followed the guardianship of Muhammad (PBUH) .

Various Sunni sources, under the hadith, phrases such as “Al-Jama’a”[33] They narrate so that it can be adapted to their more religious religion .

Meanwhile, al-Ghazali narrates a narration that out of seventy-three sects, he considered only one sect to be the people of destruction and the rest to be the people of salvation. He says: In a narration it says: “All are in Paradise except the heretics”, that is, all these groups except the heretics are in heaven. He prefers that the Halke sect be only one sect, because he sees it as more compatible with God’s vast mercy, and believes that if the narrations regarding the unity of the Najiya sect are true, then it means that the Najiya sect is a group without the one who If they are offered fire or need intercession, they will enter heaven directly. This statement does not mean that the rest of the groups are not redeemed after being offered on fire or through intercession.[34]]

Since entering into the discussion related to the bottom of the hadith leads to discussions of theological and hadith specificities, we will leave it and discuss about the beginning of the hadith: about the beginning and the numbers used in it, there are various discussions among scholars. Words, nations, and palm trees have appeared. Some of them rejected the hadith by introducing problems which are mainly content and less documents, and considered it fake [36].]

It is believed that due to the large number of records of this hadith in Shia and Sunni sources, it is very difficult to prove that it is fake.[37] However, the content problems related to the beginning of the hadith are only in the first sentence among the two sentences. Some of these problems are as follows :

۱٫  The division of Judaism into seventy-one sects and Christianity into seventy-two sects is not consistent with external reality [38 ] .

۲٫  What is the meaning of the difference that causes the creation of a sect? If it is meant by jurisprudential differences, the number of sects has not yet reached seventy-three, and if it is meant by theological differences, if it includes all kinds of differences in theological issues, both small and large, the number of different sects throughout the history of Islam is over a thousand. It has also passed, and if the difference is meant in the main issues such as monotheism, imamate and justice, the number of sects has not yet reached this number..

۳٫  What is the time frame in which this difference occurred? Does it mean the period from the beginning of Islam until the lifetime of the writers of the books of Nations and Nahl, who usually lived in the 4th to 6th centuries and referred to that hadith, or is it meant until the Day of Resurrection?

Fakhr Razi says the following in response to these and previous problems :

The meaning of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) in this hadith is that my Ummah will soon reach this number in an indefinite state (an indefinite time). In this hadith, there is no indication for other situations (other times), in the sense that it remains the same number in other times and does not increase or decrease [39].]

It goes without saying that this justification is not a logical and efficient justification for the hadith of division. Because the appearance of the hadith is that this number reaches the end of the division, not the division of the nation in an indefinite time .

۴٫  It is unlikely that the Holy Prophet (PBUH) would mention a number and mean its true meaning, thus leaving his Ummah to wander .

۵٫  Any attempt to adjust the number of sects to this number is not free of problems and more, it shows the futile efforts of the adjusters.[40 ]

The problem with the second saying, i.e. the allusiveness of numbers, is that we can consider the number seventy as an allusion to abundance only if it is in the form of contracts[43 ].

The answer is that if the theologian wants to express the conventional plural, he usually expresses it with the word seventy, like the Qur’anic verse addressed to the Holy Prophet (pbuh): “If you seek forgiveness for them seventy times, then Allah will forgive them.” (Surah Towbah, verse 8). However, if he wants to express a degree higher than the conventional multiplicity by means of a metaphorical number, he has no choice but to add a number to seventy and express it with “one and seventy”. And if his meaning is two degrees higher than the conventional number, he expresses it with the number “two and seven”. And if he wants to express three degrees higher than the conventional abundance, he has no choice but to express it with the number “seventy-three”, and the number “three” is a real number here, even though it is an allusion to abundance in some cases. and only the number seventy is an allusion to abundance.

What confirms this view is that the context of the hadith shows a surprising number of differences within the group of followers of heavenly religions, especially Muslims, despite the fact that their prophets have enlightened the path of truth, and the expression of this meaning with numbers that reach a great number. , is more appropriate .

Regarding the content of this hadith, there are other issues such as the causes of differences, the criteria of differences that lead to the truth of the sect, the determination of the sect of Najih, disbelief or transgression of other sects, which are beyond the scope of this article.[44 ]

۳-۶ . The history of citing the hadith of separation in the books of Nations and Nahl

As we have seen, this hadith was narrated in the sources of narration of the Sunnis of the third century, such as Musnad Ahmad bin Hanbal, Sunan Abi Dawud, Sunan Ibn Majah and Sahih Tirmidhi. Also, in some of the sources of the 4th century Shia, such as Tafsir Ayashi[46] Roza Kafi authored by Muhammad Ibn Yaqoob Kalini (328 or 329 AH) and Khasal and Meaning of Al-Akhbar by Sheikh Sadouq (381 AH) have come. But the nations and the Sunni writers in the second half of the third century and the first half of the fourth century of the Hijri, such as Saad bin Abdullah Ash’ari (299 or 301 AH) in Al-Maqalat and Al-Farq, Abu Muhammad Hassan bin Musa Nobakhti (between 300 and 310 AH) in the Shia sect, Abul Hasan Ali Ibn Ismail Ash’ari (324 AD) did not include this hadith in his books in his Islamic writings, and naturally, they did not base their books on it. Although about the first two books, we can justify that because the Shia authors of these two books were trying to describe the Shia sects and not all Muslims, they did not mention this hadith, but this explanation applies to the third book, which was trying to describe all the Islamic sects. It is not true .

For the first time, in the second half of the 4th century of Hijri, in the book of Warning and Rejection of the Ahl al-Ahwa and Bada written by Abul Hussain Muhammad Bin Ahmad Malti Shafi’i (377 AH), there is a reference to this hadith.[48] After him, in the fifth century of Hijri, Abu Mansur Abdul Qahir al-Baghdadi (429 AH) in the beginning of the book on the difference between Al-Farq and Bayan Al-Najiya Menhm, mentioned this hadith by mentioning its various documents and based his book on it. His son-in-law, Abu Muzaffar Asfraini (471 A.H.) imitated his work method in al-Tabasir fi al-Din and distinguishing the sect of al-Najiya from al-Furq al-Halkin. Bringing the phrase Najiya Sect in the title of both books clarifies the intention of their authors to refer to this hadith .

Also in this century, Abul Ma’ali Muhammad Hosseini Alavi, who wrote his book Bayan al-Idyan in Persian language in 485 A.H., narrates this hadith with a connected chain of tradition from Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him).[50] And he did not pay attention to it in the arrangement of his book. However, after him and in the same century, Uthman ibn Abdullah ibn Hassan Hanafi Iraqi (c. 500 AD) based his book on the differences between the people of Al-Zaygh and Zandaqah based on this hadith .

Muhammad bin Abdul Karim Shahrashtani (AD 548), the most famous writer of nations and palm trees of the 6th century and even the history of this science, mentioned this hadith in the beginning of the book Milla wal Nahl, and while laying down rules, he tried to apply the number seventy-three to Islamic sects. From this time onward, this hadith has firmly established its foothold in this science and it has been accepted in its original Muslim form, by the nations and the writers as well as those who wrote in this valley, and therefore in the works that are Since this time, they have been written, such as Tznatna al-Awam fi Marafah, articles attributed to Seyyed Mortaza Da’i Hosni Razi (who lived in the 7th century AH), Al-Itsaam by Shatabi (790 AH), Al-Maniya and Al-Amal in Sharh Al-Mall al-Nahl by Ahmad bin Mortaza Hosseini Razi. 840 A.H.) and al-Shaqt al-Maqriziyah by Taqi al-Din Maqrizi (845-746 AH). This hadith is the basis of the authors and is the basis of the division of Islamic sects. It is interesting here that a person like Moghrizi who considers the number of Shiite sects to be 300 and the number of famous sects to be 20, and only for Khattabiyah, who was one of the Ghalian groups, he considers 50 sects.[51] He did not stop the appearance of this hadith and tried to match the number seventy-three to the number of Islamic sects. In this, perhaps the only exception is Fakhr al-Din Razi (544-604 AH), who mentioned them and their beliefs in the book of Beliefs of the Sects of Muslims and Polytheists, without paying attention to this hadith and without counting the number of sects .

A brief history of the texts of the science of nations and Islamic science

By referring to the bibliographies, we find out that the writing of works on the science of nations and Islamic civilization began from the beginning of the third century of the Hijri, and this was at a time when the Islamic Ummah had various political currents involved in sectarianism, as well as effective cultural currents. He had left the sects like the translation movement and the mixing of the Islamic nation with the people of other lands such as Iran, Rome and India and had experienced the emergence of all kinds of sects within himself [52].]

Among the books that appeared in the third century, we can mention the following writings :

The Book of Differences, written by Abu Yusuf Yaqub bin Ishaq bin Sekit (186-244 AH),[53] who was the teacher of Abbasi’s children at the beginning and was martyred for Shia crime .

The Book of Essays, written by Abu Isa Muhammad bin Harun Warraq (AD 247 AH).[54 ]

Essays, written by Hossein bin Ali Karabisi (245 to 248 AH), which was one of the main sources of written books on the takfir of the Khawarij and Ghalat, and even now a part of it is available in a book written about atheism.[55 ]

Kitab al-Istiqama fi Sunnah wa al-Radd al-Ahl al-Ahwa, written by Abu Asim Khashish bin Asram (AD 253 AH), which Malati quotes from him in his warning and rebuttal.[56 ]

Book of essays[59 ] Opinions and Religions, written by Abu Muhammad Hasan bin Musa Nobakhti (310 AD), which Najashi considers a great and good book that contains many sciences.[60 ]

In the meantime, some of them started writing books about some of the big sects such as Shia, Mu’tazila and Khawarij .

۱٫  Shi’a differences, written by Abu Isa Muhammad bin Harun Warraq ;

۲٫  Farq Shia, written by Abul Muzafar Muhammad bin Ahmad Naimi, who was one of the students of Imam Hasan Askari, peace be upon him ;

۳٫  Farq Shi’a, written by Abu al-Qasim Nasr bin Sabah Balkhi ;

۴٫  Al-Maqalat al-Farq, written by Saad bin Abdullah bin Abi Khalaf Ash’ari (299 AD or 301 AD );

۵٫  Farq Shia, written by Abu Muhammad Hasan bin Musa Nobakhti (310-300 AD).[61 ]

The science of nations and Islamic knowledge continued to grow in the fourth century of Hijri. Among the books published in this century, the following books can be mentioned :

۱٫  The book of Rebuttal to Ahl al-Bidaa and Al-Hawa, written by Abu Mutia Makhoul bin Fazl Nasafi (318 AH);[62 ]

۲٫  Essays of the Muslims and the Discord of the Muslims, written by Abul Hasan Ali Ibn Ismail Ash’ari (324 AH );

۳٫  Al-Maqalat, written by Sheikh Abu Mansour Muhammad bin Muhammad Matridi (333 AD);[63 ]

۴٫  Nahal al-Arab (Nahl of the East), written by Muhammad bin Bahr Rahani Abulhasan Narmashiri (d  340 AH);[64 ]

۵٫  The articles in the principles of religions of the Khawarij and the Mu’tazila and the Shi’ites, written by Abul Hasan Ali bin Hossein Masoudi (346 AD);[65 ]

۶٫  Al-Tanbiyyah and Rebuke to the Ahl al-Hawwa and Bada, written by Abul Hussain Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Abdurrahman Malati Shafi’i (377 AH );

۷٫  The Book of Farq written by Sheikh Sadouq (381 AD);[66 ]

۸٫  Al-Tamahid fi al-Ard al-Muhadda al-Mu’ta’la wal-Rafidha wal-Khawarij wal-Mu’tazila, written by Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Tayyib known as Baghalani (403 AH), who wrote it before 367 AH in Shiraz for the purpose of teaching Samsam Daulah, the son of Azdal Daulah from the sultans of Al-Buyeh.[67 ]

One of the most important events of this century is the authoring of the book Essays on Islam by Ash’ari, who was the founder of Ash’ari. This book had a great impact on the later works of this century as well as on the writings of nations and nahls of the following centuries, and perhaps we can consider the authorship of this book as one of the reasons for the growth of nations and nahls among the Ash’ari .

The fifth century is a turning point in the history of nations and palm writers, because most of the books that were cited by nations and palm writers over the centuries, and are still considered as the main sources of this science, were written in this century. These books are :

۱٫  The difference between al-Farq and the statement of al-Najiya group of menh, written by Abdul Qahir bin Tahir bin Muhammad bin Baghdadi Asfraini Tamimi (429 AH). Before this work, the author has written another book titled Al-Illam and Al-Nahl, and he refers to it in the book “Farq B’in Al-Farq”.[68 ]

It seems that for the first time the title of nations and plants was used for this science by the same author and in this book. Although the author of this book has chosen the title of Nations and Palms, he has only investigated Islamic sects (and not all religions and sects) [69].]

۲٫  Al-Chapter (Al-Fasal, Al-Fasal) in the universe and air, written by Abu Muhammad Ali Ibn Ahmad known as Ibn Hazm Zahiri (456 AD ).

Among the existing books that deal with this issue, Al-Chapter is the first book that examines both different religions and Islamic sects. Although Nobakhti had previously done something like this in Al-Ara and Religions, but that book is not available now. 70 ]

۳٫  Discernment in religion and distinguishing the group of survivors from the group of those who perish, written by Abu Muzaffar Tahir bin Muhammad Shafi’i Asfraini (471 AH). The writer is the son-in-law and student of Abd al-Qahir Baghdadi, and he was greatly influenced by his teacher’s books, Farq-e-Furq, Al-Millam, and Nahal .

۴٫  Bayan al-Idyan in the description of Jahili and Islamic religions and sects, written by Abul Ma’ali Muhammad Hossein Alavi, who wrote it in 485 AH in “Adyan wa Fargh”. This book is the first author in Persian language in this science .

۵٫  The difference between the people of Al-Zaygh and Zandaqah, written by Abu Muhammad Othman bin Abdullah bin Hassan Iraqi Hanafi (500 AD).[71 ]

In the 6th century of Hijri, a book was written on this science, which associated its name with this science, in such a way that whenever people and plants are mentioned, the name of this book comes to mind. This book of Millam al-Nahl is authored by Abul Fatah Muhammad bin Abdul Karim Shahristani (479-548 AH), who made his name in this eternal science due to its comprehensiveness and also his innovative design that made it somewhat regulated .

Among other books written in this century, we can mention Al-Hur al-Ain written by Abu Saeed Nashwaan bin Saeed Hamiri (573 AH) and Talbis Iblis written by Jamal al-Din Abul Faraj Abdul Rahman bin Jozi (597 AH), although they were not written specifically about this science. And only a part of them is dedicated to the contents of this science, but the nations and palm writers of later centuries have used them.

It seems that from the 6th century onwards, especially after the authoring of the Book of International and Natural History, this science began its decline. Therefore, it is less common among the writers of Nahl and Nahl to cite post-Shahrishani books as the main source of this science. However, after the sixth century, a book was written in this science, the most important of which are mentioned :

۱٫  Beliefs of the sects of Muslims and polytheists, written by Fakhr al-Din Razi (543-606 AH ).

۲٫  Commentary on Al-Awam in the knowledge of Al-Anam articles, which was written by Seyyed Murtaza bin Da’i Hosni Razi in Persian language in the 7th century of Hijri. The author of this book is a Shiite, and in some places of the book, he defends the Shiites and rejects the accusations attributed to them.[72 ]

۳٫  Al-Farq al-Islamiya, written by Shihab al-Din Ibrahim ibn Abd Allah Hamwi Shafi’i known as Ibn Abi al-Dam (642 AH).[73 ]

۴٫  The salve of the problem in repelling the similarity and replying to the Mu’tazilites with the detailed proofs and evidences, concluded with the detailed belief of the Sunnis and the mention of the two and seventy different schools of thought, the opponents of the Sunnah and the innovators, authored by Abu Muhammad Abd Allah bin Asad Yafi Shafi’i (717 A.H. ).

۵٫  Al-Farq al-Islamiya (following the book of the description of situations), written by Muhammad bin Yusuf bin Ali bin Saeed Kermani (786 AD). The main source of this book is Milla Walanhal Shahristan.[74 ]

۶٫  Udad al-Farag and Udad al-Farag, written by Zain al-Din Serijani Mohammad Malati (788 AD).[75 ]

۷٫  The Book of Al-Maniya and Al-Amal in Sharh Al-Milla and Al-Nahl, written by Ahmad Ibn Yahya Ibn Mortaza Yamani (840 A.H.), who is considered by some to be one of the Imams of Zaidiyyah.[76 ]

۸٫  Al-Shaqar al-Maqriziyah, called Balmu’aaz and Validity, with the mention of Al-Shaqar and Works, authored by Taqi al-Din Ahmad bin Abdul Qadir known as Al-Maqrizi (746-845 AH). Although this book is related to the study of the conditions of Egypt and its climates, in a part of it, it mentions Islamic religions and sects.[77] that this part has been used by some nations and Nahl writers .

In the recent centuries, the science of nations and the Islamic tree continued to decline due to the reasons that will be mentioned later, but in the contemporary century, with the efforts of some Shia and Sunni scholars who started writing and correcting the books of this science, it has once again been revived. A new, but not very powerful, was breathed into it, and it is hoped that this science will find life again by removing its shortcomings..

Among these scientists, the following people can be mentioned: Muhammad Abu Zahra, the author of the book Tarikh al-Mahabh al-Islamiya; Dr. Abdurrahman Badawi, author of the book Madhab al-Islamiyin; Sami Al-Nashar, the author of the book “The Origin of Philosophical Thought in Islam”; Dr. Mohammad Javad Mashkoor, proofreader and translator of the books of the Nobakhti Shiite sects and Farq between the Baghdadi sects and the corrector of the books of Saad bin Abdullah Ash’ari and al-Maniya and Al-Amal in the commentary on the Yemeni world and the author of the books on the history of Shia and sects of Islam up to the fourth century and the culture of the sects Islamic And Ayatollah Sheikh Jafar Sobhani, the author of researches in the world and the world.

The main texts of the science of nations and palm trees

In this section, among the books of the previous section, we will only introduce the texts of this science, which were firstly written before the book of International and Nahl Shahristan; Because as it was said, most of the books that were written after him were adapted from him, and if it is not so, they have been less noticed by the writers. Secondly, they should be available and used by the researchers of this science. Therefore, books whose names are only mentioned in bibliographies and whose contents are scattered in other books are not introduced. Thirdly, they have been used a lot by the writers of the nations and palm trees .

Books that have these three conditions are called the main texts of this science, although some of them may have been adapted from others. The following books have these three features :

۱٫  The Shiite sect; 2. Miscellaneous articles; 3. Islamic articles; 4. Warning and rebuke of the people of God and innovation; 5. Difference between differences; 6. Chapter; 7. Interpretation in religion; 8. Statement of religions; 9. Al-Farq al-Muftraqa 10. Ella and Nahl Shahristan .

۱٫ The Shiite Sect: Among the forty-four books that are attributed to Abu Muhammad Hassan bin Musa Nobakhti (300 to 310 AH) in the books of men and women, only this work has survived. The author is one of the great scholars of the Imami Shia, who have been authenticated by the Shia scholars. He has mastered various sciences such as theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, hadith, astronomy, nations and palm trees, and has authored works in most of them. Among the works related to our discussion, we can mention books such as Al-Ara’a and Al-Diyaanat, Arrad Ali al-Ghala’a, Arrad Ali Farq Shi’a Ma Khala al-Umamiya, Arrad Ali Ashab al-Tanasakh. In his refutation books, there were many opinions of sects [78]

In this book, the author has adopted a historical method and after explaining the differences between Muslims after the death of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and the emergence of different groups, he has explained the Shia divisions until after the death of Imam Hasan Askari, peace be upon him. In the meantime, he mentions some non-Shia groups such as Mu’tazila, Kharij and Marjee and in some cases, he mentions their different sects. It seems that this book was one of the main sources of the nations and writers of later centuries about different Shiite sects .

In many cases, the author has mentioned the owners of different political thoughts and beliefs, without calling them sects; But in the books of Nations and Nahl later written by the Sunnis, they were called sects, and this was reminiscent of the existence of a large group with countless people, and he took advantage of this, by enlarging their differences, against the Shiites. has been.

The author does not involve his theological tendencies in this book and expresses different opinions impartially .

۲٫  Articles and differences: The author of this work is Saad bin Abdullah bin Abi Khalaf Ash’ari Qomi (299 AD or 301 AH), one of the great Imami Shia muhaddithists and one of the sheikhs of narrations, Muhammad bin Jafar bin Qulawieh, the author of the complete book of Ziyarat. Among his books that are related to this science, we can mention works such as al-Diya’s rebuttal to al-Muhammadiyah and al-Jaafariyyah, rebuttal to al-Ghala, and the book of rebuttal to al-Majjarra .

This book has also been mentioned in various religious books with titles such as Farq Shia, Essays of the Imams, Essays of the Imams, and Farq Wasmauha and Sanufah.[81 ]

۳٫  The articles of the Islamists and the differences of the Muslims: The author of this book is Abul Hasan Ali Ibn Ismail Ash’ari (324 AH), one of the great Sunni theologians and the founder of the Ash’ari School of Theology. Even though his works are considered to exceed ninety, only five books of his are left: The above book as well as Al-Abanah’s books on the principles of religion, the message of praise for the praise of al-Khudh in speech, the letter of the book in response to the people of al-Zaigh and innovation, and the message of the books to the people of al-Thaghr and the chapter of the chapters .

One of the characteristics of the book of Islamic Essays is the unmediated transmission of the theological beliefs of many sects, especially the great Mu’tazila sect, especially considering that Ash’ari himself had Mu’tazili beliefs until the age of forty and then separated from it .

Although this book is one of the oldest and most comprehensive sources of Islamic sectarian studies, but due to reasons such as frequent repetition, lack of eloquence in words, and unconventional order, which in one section introduces the groups and their beliefs, and in The other part puts the principle on theological opinions, the writers of Mullah and Nahl did not use it and instead referred to books such as al-Farq al-Farq al-Baghdadi and Mullah and Nahl Shahristan, although it is very likely that that book is one of the sources. The main one was the next two books.

One of the other features of this book is quoting the opinions of different groups without being critical and considering the author’s theological opinions. And also, unlike some nations and writers, it has not gone beyond the boundaries of politeness and politeness.[82] Although about some groups, such as Shia, he mentions some accusations as their beliefs .

In this book, the author first stated some of the history of differences among the Islamic Ummah and then divided the different Islamic groups and placed them in the following ten groups: 1. Shia, 2. Khawarij, 3. reference, 4. Mu’tazila, 5. Jahmia, 6. Hosseinieh, 7. Bakriya, 8. Public, 9. Companions of Hadith, 10. Piglet. From the appearance of this division, it can be seen that the major sects of Islam, under which other sects are placed, are these ten groups, while sects such as Bakriyyah, Hosseiniyyah, and Kalabiyyah cannot be included in the same width as major sects such as Shia, Khawarij and Mu’tazila, as the volume dedicated to these sects in this book can be proved well..

As it was said, the author does not follow a particular order in his book, but his book can be divided into two parts. The first part is related to sects, and in some cases, after mentioning the sects and some of their beliefs, he raises a wide discussion under the title of differences, and mentions the differences between their in-group and out-group in different beliefs, such as about Shia has done so. Sometimes he does the opposite of this, i.e. he first presents the articles of the sect and a number of their intra-group and extra-group differences, and then mentions the names of the sects of that group, as he did in the case of the Mu’tazila. Due to the author’s many associations with the Mu’tazila and their thoughts, beliefs and personalities, a large part of this book is dedicated to this sect, and it appears from the pages of the book that the author likes the beliefs of the popular group .

In the second part, the general differences of the theologians in the issues of the principles of religion and others, such as the issues related to the body, width, substance, movement, and the opinions of different groups have been stated..   It seems that if this book is rewritten and presented in a logical order, it will be able to surpass many other books of nations and fields in terms of its richness .

۴٫  Al-Tanbiyyah and Rebuke to the People of Al-Ahwa and Bada, written by Abul Hussain Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Abdul Rahman Multa Shafi’i (377 AH). The existing book, which was discovered in 1343 AH in the Zaharieh Library of Damascus, is only a part of the author’s original book, that is, it includes its third and fourth parts. The first and second parts were about Jewish and Christian sects.[83] The book has two parts. The first part deals with the mention of different sects and a brief statement of their beliefs and rejection of those beliefs. For this purpose, he proposes the sects of Rafidah (Shia) with fifteen sub-sects, Jahmiyyah with eight sub-sects, Qadriya (Mu’tazila) with seven sub-sects, Marjee with twelve sub-sects, Khawarij with 25 sub-sects and Zanadaqah with five sub-sects; The total number of these sects is seventy-two, and the seventy-third sect, which in his opinion is the Ahlul Najat, is the Ahlul Jamaat..

In this section, the author is under the influence of Khashish bin Asram’s book Al-Istaqamah (254 AH) and quotes from his book a lot. Among the noteworthy points of this section is the mention of Zanadaqah among the Islamic sects, the mention of a sect of the Imamiyyah called Ahl al-Qom, which he considers to believe in analogy and predestination, and the mention of the Mu’tazila sect of Baghdad as a sub-sect of Zaidiyyah .

In the second part, titled the Chapter on Similarities in the Qur’an, the author mentions the similar verses of the Qur’an and the inappropriate use of them by the people of Ahva. This section has been under the influence of Muqatil ibn Suleiman and has accepted opinions similar to his .

One of the characteristics of this book is the great impact of the author’s theological opinions in narrating the opinions of different sects and an effort to prove the legitimacy of a particular sect, as well as going beyond the limits of decency in many cases; For example, when mentioning the Shiite sect, he writes: “An Ahl al-Dalal al-Rafida”;[86 ]

It should be said that different sects are mentioned twice in his book: Once at the beginning of the book and again at the end of it, without there being any difference between the two .

۵٫  Al-Farq Bin Al-Farq and Bayan Al-Najiya Menah, written by Abu Mansour Abdul Qahir bin Tahir al-Baghdadi (AD 429 AH). The author is one of the Sunni theologians who have attributed about thirty books to him, but even now less than ten books are left by him. This book is responsible for the statement of Muslim sects. At the beginning of the hadith book, the author mentioned the division with different documents and considered the seventy-two sects of Halke, including the following divisions: Shia (Rawafid), Khawarij, Qadiriya Mu’tazila, Marjee, Najariyya, Bakriyya, Karamiya, Zarariyya and Jahmiyyah. He considers the seventy-third group, i.e., Najiya group, to be the group of Sunnis and Jamaat, which, from the point of view of jurisprudence, includes the Companions of Opinion and Hadith .

As can be seen, the author has taken pains to bring the denominations to the number of seventy-three. Then, in eight chapters, he explains and rejects the opinions of the mentioned groups that he considers to be Muslims .

In the next section, the author mentions sects that are not Muslims according to his opinion and have closed themselves to Islam. Naturally, they are not included in dividing the difference into seventy-three. In the final part, he mentions the beliefs and principles of Ahl al-Sunnah and Jamaat and their proofs .

Some of the features of this book are as follows: the author’s impartiality and fairness, going beyond the limits of decency, and making many accusations against opposing groups; For example, he created sects with the titles of Hishamiya, Zarariyya, Yunisiya and Shaitaniya in the name of Companions of the Imams (a.s.) and attributed unjust beliefs to them. Fakhr al-Din Razi (543-606 AH) writes about the unfairness of the author of this book: “And this al-Istaaz [Abu Mansour al-Baghdadi] was very prejudiced against the opponents, and he could not convey their religion according to the truth”.[87]]

۶٫  Al-Chusl Fi Millam Wala Hawa Walanhal, written by Abu Muhammad Ali Ibn Ahmad known as Ibn Hazm Zahiri (384-456 AH). The author is one of the greatest scholars of apparent religion, and in fact, he can be called the reviver of this religion, which relies on the appearance of the Qur’an, hadith, falsification of analogy, opinion, and approval. His religion has also appeared in the Book of Chapters and, for example, when mentioning the Christian interpretations of the Holy Bible, he has listed it as contrary to appearance. More than one hundred and thirty books are attributed to him on various subjects of jurisprudence, principles, theology, history, men’s law, logic, and nations, of which forty-six works from this collection are currently available .

The Book of Chapters, which was written between 418 and 440 AD[88] And it is considered one of the greatest books of Nations and Nahl, in fact, it is more similar to a book of words than a book on Nations and Nahl; Because he dealt more with theological issues, and the section related to the citation of the sayings of religions and differences is much less than the whole book, and it is also associated with rejecting the opinions of others and proving his own opinion..

The section related to the science of nations and plants is organized in two chapters. The first chapter, which expresses the opinions of other religions, may be considered one of the oldest detailed Islamic discussions in this field, although the examination of this part is out of the scope of this article. The second part is in the statement of the opinions of the Islamic sect; The author divides the sects based on Islam into five main sects: Sunnis, Mu’tazila, Marjie, Shi’a and Khawarij, and counts sub-sects for each.[89]]

In this book, Ibn Hazm considers the sect of Ahl al-Sunnah, who are the followers of Hadith, to be right, and when quoting the words of the rest of the sect, he rejects them according to his religion. One of the interesting points is that he considered Abu Hanfiyyah’s jurisprudence as a source, and in another part, he considered Kisaniyah as a sub-sect of Zaidiyyah [90].]

In a major part of the book, which can be considered within the subject of Islamic sectarianism, the author collects the blasphemous or impossible sayings of the four groups, that is, the Mu’tazila, the Kharijite, the Shia, and the Marjee, and in other words, the groups that oppose The people of Sunnah and Hadith have paid. He raised this issue under the title of “Remembering the great things of disbelief, and those who believe in the impossible.” [92]]

۷٫  Al-Tabasir in religion and distinction of the division of the survivors from the division of the dead, written by Abu Muzaffar Asfraini (471 AH). The author has Ash’ari thinking and has written his book on this basis, and in it he has taken a lot of influence from Baghdadi’s book Al-Furq bin Al-Furq, but he also has many disagreements with that book. Among other things, in the description of the seventy and double sects, unlike Baghdadi, he divides Marjee into seven sects and considers Bakriyeh and Najariyeh sects as one sect, and Jahmiyah and Karamiyah sects as one sect, and like Baghdadi, Najiyeh sect Ahl al-Sunnah and Jama’at, which includes both groups of hadith and opinion companions, knows.

This book has fifteen chapters; In the first and second chapters, the history of differences and hadiths of division and the mention of different sects have been briefly explained. From the third chapter to the twelfth chapter, the opinions of different sects have been presented in detail and the author has rejected them in many cases with rudeness and accusations; For example, in the rejection of Rawafaz (Shiites), he quotes the fake hadith “Al-Rafaaz Jews of this nation” from the words of the Holy Prophet (PBUH), and the scholar of the book mentions this point in the subtitle that he did not find it in hadith books..

In the thirteenth chapter, he mentioned the sects that are out of Islam and mentioned many of the grain sects as well as some of the Khawarij sects under this title .

The 14th chapter is devoted to the mention of beliefs and religions before Islam such as pagans, sophists, magi, Jews and Christians. This chapter is one of the differences between this book and the Baghdadi sect, which is dedicated to the mention of Islamic sects. The 15th chapter explains the proof of the opinions of Ahl al-Sunnah and Jamaat .

۸٫  The statement of religions in the description of Jahili and Islamic religions and sects, written by Abul Ma’ali Muhammad Hosseini Alavi. The author of his book probably wrote it in 485 AD[94] He mentioned the groups claiming prophethood and divinity and the uprisings that took place with these claims; Here, in addition to Musailma and Aswad Anas who claimed prophethood at the beginning of Islam, he mentions some people like Mukhtar and also some groups of grain. It seems that about Mukhtar, he has gone beyond the limit of impartiality and relied on the statements of Sunni fanatics .

۹٫  Al-Farq al-Muftaraqa between the people of Al-Zaygh and Al-Zandaqah, written by Abu Muhammad Othman bin Abdullah bin Hassan Iraqi Hanafi (500 AD).[95] In the beginning, the author describes a number of the history of the difference between Muslims and considers its beginning when Uthman was killed. Then he goes on to explain the hadith of division and to reach the number of seventy-three, he presents an innovative classification, in such a way that he divides the Islamic sects into six main sects: Nasbiyyah, Rafidah, Jabriyyah, Qadriyyah, Meshabah, and Matalah, and for each The main sect mentions twelve sub-sects, and in this way the number seventy-two is obtained, and the seventy-third sect, which are the people of salvation, is the sect of the Sunnah and Jamaat. Then he goes on to explain some of the opinions of the seventy-two groups and rejects each opinion according to its basis .

The remarkable point in this book is that while counting the twelve sects of Rawafd (Shia), he mentions ten sects of them from Ghalat and considers the other two sects as Zaidiyyah and Imamiyyah.[96 ]

۱۰٫ Al-Mullam and Al-Nahl, written by Abul-Fath Abd al-Karim bin Abi Bakr Ahmad Shahrashtani (548-479). As it was said, this book comprehensively and in detail deals with Islamic sects and religions and also has an innovative order. Therefore, they have paid attention to this book and considered it the most famous and the most original book of Nations and Nahl. In some of the writings, the author was introduced as a philosopher and theologian and was given the nickname “Afzal”. His writings have been considered in the fields of philosophy and its history, Kalam, Tafsir, and Nahal. One of the opponents of philosophy says that if he did not defend the philosophers, he could be considered as an imam [97].]

After the introductory statement, the author organizes his book in two parts. The first part is devoted to religions and nations, and the second part deals with the discussion and research about the Ahwa and Nahl. The introduction of Nations and Nahal includes the overall division of all the people of the world, the determination of the rules and regulations for the division of Islamic sects, the history of creating doubts among the general public and especially Islamic sects, and in the final introduction, there is a discussion about choosing one’s own method in arranging the book. does When he stated the rules for the division of Islamic sects, he limited all the differences of Muslims to four rules :

The first rule: Attributes of God and the dispute over the unity or plurality of attributes, which he considers to include issues such as eternal attributes, inherent attributes, and verb attributes and disputes over them .

The second rule: Qadr and the problem of justice, which he considers to include the issues of Qada and Qadr, determinism and gain, the will of good and evil, as possible and certain, and he explains the differences of different Islamic groups on these issues .

The third rule: Promises and vows, names and decrees, which he considers to include issues such as faith, repentance, vows, prayers, takfir and misguidance .

The fourth rule: Hearing and intellect, mission and imamate, which he considers to include issues such as praise and censure, salah and correctness, grace and infallibility in prophethood and the conditions of imamate .

Then he says that if one of the leaders of the Ummah agrees with one of the above articles, we will consider his article as a religion and his congregation as a sect. In other words, according to him, the conditions for forming a sect are two things: The first one is that he adheres to one of the above articles, and the second one is that he believes that he is one of the leaders of the ummah, that followers can be sought for him, so that the title of sect applies to their congregation. Then, according to the differences of opinion in the above articles, he divides the Islamic sects into four major groups: Qadiriyya, Safatiya, Khawarij and Shia, and considers the interference of small groups as the cause of the emergence of the number seventy-three .

In the first part, the author discusses religions and nations. He says that the criteria for distinguishing religions and nations from Ahwa and Nahl is that the people of the religions and nations base their beliefs on other than themselves, which is the Prophet, but the people of Ahwa and Nahl take their opinion and belief without referring to the Prophet. He uses the word “beneficiary” about the first group and the word “tyrant” about the second group. This section itself is divided into two chapters, Muslims and non-Muslims, and it also explains the difference between Muslims in two parts, principles and branches; In the section on principles and theological issues, he mentions different Islamic sects and their sayings about the mentioned four rules .

Fakhr al-Din Razi (606 AH) believes that Shahristan took this section from Baghdadi’s Book of Differences between Differences, which was a bigoted person, so he considers it invalid.[98] But by comparing these two books, although they have many similarities, we cannot confirm Fakhreddin Razi’s opinion in general; For example, one of the differences between the two is that a city mentions the beliefs of the sects without commenting on it; In addition to that, in many cases, they differ in the title of sects and their beliefs.

In the section of non-Islamic religions, the author mentions the opinions and beliefs of Jews, Christians, Magi, followers of the pages of Ibrahim who believe in a divine book, and mentions their different sects .

In the second part of the book, which is dedicated to the statement of the people of Ahwa and Nahl, the author mentions various groups such as philosophers, Jahilit Arabs, pagans, Sabians, Harnanians .

[۱]. Of course, this point should not be overlooked that in the last century, some orientalists as well as Muslim scholars have started writing books about different sects, and in them, to some extent, they report and describe their beliefs and history, regardless of their tendencies. They have tried themselves. This has caused the relative growth and dynamism of this science in the last century. But it should be noted that the time range discussed in this article is before the present time .

[۲].  In addition to the study of Islamic religions and sects, the science of nations and Nahl also studies various religions .

[۳].  Jafar Sobhani, “Researches in Al-Mill al-Nahl” (2nd edition, Al-Dar al-Islamiyya, Beirut, 1411 AH), vol. 1, p. 22 .

[۴].  Taj al-Arus, vol. 8, p. 120; Lasan al-Arab, vol. 13, p. 188 .

[۵].  Ragheb Esfahani, the vocabulary of the words of the Qur’an, Nadim Marashli’s research, p. 492 .

[۶]. Mohammad Baqir Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar (3rd edition, Dar Ahya al-Trath al-Arabi, Beirut, 1403 AH), vol. 18, p. 3, hadith 4. And also p. 30 (quoted from Jami al-Asul), and vol. 10, p. 408 .

[۷].  Mohammad Bin Abd al-Karim Shahrashtani, Al-Mallam and Al-Nahl, Mohammad Sidgilani’s Research (Dar al-Marafe, Beirut, 1402 AH), Vol. 1, p. 13 .

[۸].  Surah Nisa, verse 4 .

[۹].  Ragheb Esfahani, Previous, p. 506 .

[۱۰].  Taj al-Arus, vol. 8, p. 129 .

[۱۱].  Arab tongue, female palm; Ragheb Esfahani, Previous, p. 506 .

[۱۲].  For information about these Rak’at narrations: Al-Ma’jam Al-Mufhars Lalfaz Ahadith Bihar al-Anwar (first edition, Islamic Propaganda Office, Qom), vol. 12, p. 645 .

[۱۳].  Shahrashtani, Peshin, vol.1, p.13 .

[۱۴].  the same

[۱۵].  Ragheb Esfahani, Previous, p. 391 .

[۱۶].  The sources of this hadith will be discussed below .

[۱۷].  For more information: Nematullah Safari, Ghalian; An exploration of currents and developments (first edition, Astan Quds Razavi Islamic Research Foundation, Mashhad, 1378 ).

[۱۸].  Shahrashtani, Peshin, vol. 1, pp. 14-15 .

[۱۹].  Mulakatb Chalabi (Hajji Khalifa), Kafsh al-Dhanun on Asami al-Kutub al-Ayun (Dar al-Fakr, Beirut, 1410 AH), Vol. 2, p. 1782 .

[۲۰].  Agha Bozur Tehrani, Al-Shayrah (3rd edition, Dar Al-Azwa, Beirut, 1403 AH), Vol. 1, p. 34; Volume 20, p. 388 .

[۲۱].  The same, vol. 20, p. 392 .

[۲۲].  Abu Abd Allah Muhammad bin Yazid Qazwini (known as Ibn Majah) Sunan, research of Muhammad Fouad Abdul Baqi (Darahiya al-Trath al-Arabi, Beirut), Kitab al-Fatn, vol. 2, chapter 17, pp. 1321-1322 .

[۲۳].  Ahmad bin Hanbal, Masnad (Dar al-Fakr, Beirut), vol. 2, p. 332 .

[۲۴].  Abu Dawud Suleiman bin Ash’ath Sajestani, Sunan, research of Muhammad Mohyiddin Abd al-Hamid (Al-Maqbatah al-Asriya, Beirut), vol. 4, p. 198, hadith 4597 .

[۲۵].  Abu Isa Muhammad bin Isa bin Surah (known as Tirmidhi), Sunan, research by Kamal Yusuf al-Hawt (Dar al-Fakr, Beirut), vol. 5, Kitab al-Iman, chapter 18, p. 26, hadith 41 .

[۲۶].  Jafar Sobhani, Previous, vol. 1, p. 25, quoted by al-Mustadrak Ali al-Sahiheen, vol. 1, p. 128 .

[۲۷].  For more information: Abdullah bin Muhammad Zilqi Masri (762 AH), Takhrijh Ahadith al-Kashf, which is quoted in two books of discussion in Al-Millam and Al-Nahl (Vol. 1, p. 33) and Madhab al-Islamimin by Abd al-Rahman Badawi (first edition, Dar al-Alam Lal-Malayin, Beirut, vol. 1, p. 33-34) .

[۲۸].  Muhammad bin Yaqoob Kalini (328 or 329 AH), al-Rawda Man al-Kafi, edited by Muhammad Ja’far Shams al-Din (Dar al-Ta’arif for the press, Beirut), p. 182, hadith 283 .

[۲۹].  In Ahmad’s Musnad (Vol. 2, p. 332) there are seventy-two and seventy-three in other sources .

[۳۰].  Mohammad Baqer Majlisi, Previous, Vol. 28, P. 3, Hadith 4 .

[۳۱].  Ibid., p. 4, hadith 5 .

[۳۲].  Ibn Majah, Previous, vol. 2, p. 1321 .

[۳۳].  Al-Tirmidhi, Previous, Volume 5, Page 26, Hadith 41 .

[۳۴].  Ahmad bin Muhammad al-Ghazali, Faisal al-Tafqarah bein al-Islam wal-Zandaqah, corrected by Sayyid Muhammad Nur al-Din Halabi (first edition, Al-Saada Press, Egypt, 1325 AH), pp. 23-24 .

[۳۵].  Islamic Religions (Vol. 1, pp. 33-34) raises most of the content problems, but Abu Muhammad Ali Ibn Ahmad, known as Ibn Hazm Zahiri, in his book al-Chals fi Millam Walahwa Walanhal (Research by Muhammad Ibrahim Nasr and Abdurrahman Umirah, second edition, Dar al-Jeel, Beirut, 1416 AH, Volume 3, p. 392) rejects it in terms of the document .

[۳۶].  For more information about the second opinion of the rack: Ahmad Mahdavi Damghani, “A Commentary on the Number 73 in the Hadith of Tafarqa”, Yaghma Magazine (Year 17, Number 5), pp. 209-212 .

[۳۷].  For more information about the quality of the documents of this hadith, see: Jafar Sobhani, Peshin, Vol. 1, pp. 23-26 .

[۳۸].  For more information about some explanations about this, see: Mohammad Javad Mashkoor, History of Shia and sects of Islam until the 4th century Hijri (3rd edition, Ishraq, Tehran, 1361), p. 19 .

[۳۹].  Fakhr al-Din Razi, Al-Tafsir al-Kabeer and Fatih al-Gheeb (3rd edition, Dar al-Fakr, Beirut, 1405 AH), vol. 22, p. 219, verse 93, Surah Anbiya .

[۴۰].  Abdurrahman Badawi, Peshin, Vol. 1, pp. 33-34 .

[۴۱].  Contract numbers are twenty, thirty to ninety .

[۴۲].  Reversed numbers are obtained from the combination of contracts and units, such as seventy-one, seventy-two .

[۴۳].  Jafar Sobhani, Peshin, vol. 1, p. 36 .

[۴۴].  For information about these topics, refer to: Abu Ishaq Ibrahim bin Musa Shatabi, al-Itsam, Masoud Tomeh Halabi’s research (first edition, Daral al-Marafe, Beirut, 1413 AH), vol.2, pp. 527-438 .

[۴۵].  Mohammad Baqir Majlisi, Previous, Vol. 28, p. 6, Hadith 9, quoted from Tafsir Al-Ayashi, Vol. 2, p. 42 .

[۴۶].  He has also been considered to be of the upper class, including: Aghabozur Tehrani, Previous, Vol. 4, p. 295 .

[۴۷].  Abu al-Hussein Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Abdurrahman Multa Shafi’i, Warning and rebuke to the people of lust and innovation, Commentary on Muhammad Zahid bin Hasan Kothari (Al-Muthanna Library and Al-Ma’arif Library, Baghdad and Beirut, 1388 AH), p. 47 .

[۴۸].  Ibid., p. 91 .

[۴۹].  Abul Ma’ali Muhammad Hossein Alavi, The Statement of Religions in the Description of Jahili and Islamic Religions and Religions, edited by Abbas Iqbal (Avicenna Publishing House, Tehran), pp. 23-24 .

[۵۰].  Volume 3, p. 292 .

[۵۱].  Taqi al-Din Ahmad bin Ali bin Abd al-Qadir (known as Muqrizi), Al-Shaqt al-Muqriziyah Al-Maqriziyah Al-Maqriziyah Al-Maqriziyah Al-Mawaaz and Validity with Dhikr Al-Shaqt and Works (Dar Ahyaya Uloom and Dar Al-Irfan, Beirut), vol. 3, p. 300 .

[۵۲].  Agha Bozur Tehrani, vol. 16, p. 174. For information about some of the causes of differences and the emergence of different differences, refer to: Muhammad Abu Zahra, History of Islamic Religions (Dar al-Fekr al-Arabi, Beirut), pp. 29-7 .

[۵۳].  Al-Shayrah, vol. 16, p. 174 .

[۵۴].  The same, vol. 21, p. 388 .

[۵۵].  Fouad Sezgin, History of Arab Heritage (2nd edition, Ayatollah Azami Marashi Najafi Public Library, Qom, 1412 AH) Volume 1, Part 4 (Fi al-Aqeed and Sufism), p. 29 .

[۵۶].  Aghabozur Tehrani, Previous, vol. 16, p. 178 .

[۵۷].  Molakatab Chalabi, first, vol. 2, p. 1782 .

[۵۸].  Ahmad bin Yahya bin Mortaza Yamani, Kitab al-Maniya wa Amal fi Sharh al-Mill al-Nahl, research by Dr. Mohammad Javad Mashkoor (Institute of Literary Literature, Beirut, 1988), Introduction by Mohaghegh, p. 10. The researcher also informs about the discovery of this book in recent decades .

[۵۹].  Fouad Sezgin, Previous, p. 34 .

[۶۰].  Abu al-Abbas Ahmed bin Ali Najashi (372-450 A.H.), Rijal, Sayyid Musa Shabiri Zanjani’s research (Al-Nashar al-Islami Institute, Qom), p. 63. For more information about this book and its author, refer to: Big Islamic Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, p. 272 .

[۶۱].  Farq Shia, translated by Mohammad Javad Mashkoor, (first edition, Farhang Iran Publishing House, Tehran, 1353), p. twenty-two .

[۶۲].  Fouad Sezgin, Previous, vol. 1, p. 34 .

[۶۳].  Molakatab Chalabi, first, vol. 2, p. 1782 .

[۶۴].  Aghabozur Tehrani, Previous, vol. 24, p. 83 .

[۶۵].  The same, vol. 21, p. 392 .

[۶۶].  The same, vol. 16, p. 174 .

[۶۷].  Muhammad Ramadan Abdullah, Al-Baqalani and Araouh Al-Kalamiyyah (Al-Uma Press, Baghdad, 1986), p. 159 and p. 198 .

[۶۸].  For more information about this book: Abdul Qahir al-Baghdadi, Dr. Birnasri Nader’s Book of International Studies and Research (3rd edition, Dar al-Mashrek, Beirut), introduction by the researcher; The difference between the history of the religions of Islam, translated by Mohammad Javad Mashkoor (3rd edition, Eshraqi Publications, Tehran, 1358), pp. 11 onwards .

[۶۹].  Birnasri, Kitab Al-Mall al-Nahl, p. 38 .

[۷۰].  For more information about the contents of the book of opinions and religious beliefs of Rak: Big Islamic Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, p. 272 .

[۷۱].  The date of his death has been mentioned by Reza Kahaleh in Al-Mu’jam al-Al-Tarin (Muthani Library and Dar Ahya Al-Trath al-Arabi, Beirut, vol. 5, p. 258) .

[۷۲].  This book was edited by Abbas Iqbal Ashtiani and published by Majlis Press in 1313 .

[۷۳].  Molakatab Chalabi, first, vol. 2, p. 255 .

[۷۴].  This book was researched by Salima Abdul Rasul and was published in the year of Baghdad University .

[۷۵].  The same, vol. 2, p. 1130 .

[۷۶].  This book was recently discovered and Dr. Mohammad Javad Mashkoor researched it and published it in the Cultural Book Institute .

[۷۷].  Moghrizi, Pasin, vol. 3, p. 289 and after that .

[۷۸].  Rack: The introduction of Mohammad Javad Mashkoor on the sect of Nobakhti Shiites .

[۷۹].  Using the introduction of Mohammad Javad Mashkoor to this book (3rd edition, Center for Scientific and Cultural Publications, Tehran, 2011 ).

[۸۰].  Abbas Iqbal Ashtiani, Khanad Nobakhti (3rd edition, Tahuri Library, Tehran, 1357), p. 140 and after .

[۸۱].  Translation of Farq al-Shia, pp. 27-31 and the introduction of the articles and Al Farq .

[۸۲].  Rack: Abul Hasan Ash’ari, Essays of the Muslims and the Discord of the Muslims, corrected by Helmut Ritter (3rd edition, Franz Steiner Publishing House, Qaisbadan, 1400 AH), section of the publisher’s introduction; Introduction to Islamic Articles, translated by Mohsen Moayidi (first edition, Sepehr Printing House, Tehran, 1362 ).

[۸۳].  Al-Tanbiyah and Ward, the research of Mohammad Zahid bin Hassan Kothari .

[۸۴].  Wallard’s warning, p. 18 .

[۸۵].  The same, p. 33 .

[۸۶].  The same, p. 23 .

[۸۷].  Debates of Jarat in the country beyond the river in wisdom and conflict and others between Imam Fakhr al-Din Razi and others (first edition, Majlis of the Ottoman Encyclopaedia, Hyderabad, India, 1355 AH), p. 25 .

[۸۸].  For more information about Ibn Hazm’s book of al-Chaphr and biography, refer to: Dr. Mahmoud Ali Yufa, Ibn Hazm and his methodology in the study of religions (first edition, Dar al-Maarif, Cairo, 1983); and the introduction of the chapter book .

[۸۹].  Chapter, Vol. 2, pp. 275-265 .

[۹۰].  The same, vol. 5, p. 35 .

[۹۱].  The same, p. 33 .

[۹۲].  Ibid., pp. 50-35 .

[۹۳].  Bayan Al-Edyan, research by Abbas Iqbal, p. 44 .

[۹۴]. Abbas Iqbal, who corrected this book in 1312, did not have access to this chapter, but recently, a new edition of this book was released by Rooz Publications in 1376 through the efforts of Dr. Seyed Mohammad Debirsiyaghi, which contains the content of the previous four chapters corrected by Abbas. Iqbal and the fifth chapter are corrected by scholar Mohammad Taghi.

[۹۵].  This book has been published with the research and guidance of Dr. Bashar Qutkoai .

[۹۶].  Al-Farq al-Muftraqa, p. 31 .

[۹۷].  For more information: Khair al-Din Zarkali, Al-Alam (9th edition, Dar al-Alam Lal-Mulayin, Beirut, 1990), vol. 6, p. 215 .

[۹۸].  The debates of Jarat in the country beyond the river in Hikma and Khilaf and others between Imam Fakhr al-Din Razi and others, p.